Marked for Mayhem STREET CRIMINALS ARE SELECTIVE ABOUT THEIR VICTIMS. UNFORTUNATELY, MANY OF US UNWITTINGLY GIVE OFF SIGNALS THAT MARK US AS EASY TARGETS. BY CHUCK HUSTMYRE AND JAY DIXIT midnight in Ne w Orleans.Lisa Z. was wa l k i n g home from the Fre n c h Quarter hotel where she works when three men stepped around a corner and stopped in front of her. When she tried to cross the st reet to get away, the men charged after her. “One guy clotheslined me,” she recalls, “then choked me, threw me on the s i d e walk, and jammed a chro m e, snubnosed .38 revolver against my cheekbone.” Lisa was kicked, robbed, and then told not 80 Psychology Today January/February 2009
to move or she’d be shot in the face. The men who robbed her likely chose Lisa because she unknowingly sent out signals that marked her as a “soft” target. Alone and encumbered by a backpack, she a p p e a redto be a vulnerable person who could be easily controlled. “Some of these guys concentrate on people who are easy to overcome,” says Vo l kan Topalli, a psyc h o l o g i st and criminologist at Georg i a State University. “They’ll target females, they’ll target older people, but they’re also looking for cues of weakness or fear.”
Criminals,like their victims, come in all va r i e t i e s, but re s e a rchers have found that they don’t choose their victims ra ndomly. There ’s a reason FBI agents begin crime investigations by creating profiles of victims. It’s because the identity of victims—particularly if there are several victims with differing characteristics—helps i nvestigators determine whether a criminal is targeting a specific kind of person or choosing victims opportunist i c a l l y. In the field of victimology, one of the central concepts is that of the “risk conI l l u st ration by KAGAN McLEOD
tinuum”—thereare degrees of risk for a type of crime based on your care e r, lifest y l e, relationships,movements, and even personality, aspects of which are manifest in your behavior and demeanor. Some factors that make people potential victims are obvious—flashing wads of cash, wearing expensive jewelry, walking alone on back st reets. Others are subtler, including posture, walking style, even the ability to read facial expressions. The cues add up to what David Buss terms “exploitability.” An evo l u t i o n a r y p s yc h o l o g i st at the Un i versity of Texa s, Buss is examining a catalogue of traits that seem to invite some people to exploit others. There’s cheatability (cues you can be duped in social exchange), sex u a l exploitability (cues you can be sexually manipulated), as well as mugability, ro b-
ability, killability, st a l ka b i l i t y, and even sexual-assaultability. “As adaptations for exploitation evo l ved, so did defenses to prevent being exploited—wariness toward st rangers, cheater-detection sensitivities, and possibly anti-rape defenses,” explains Buss. “These defenses, in turn, cre a t e d selection pre s s u re for additional adaptations for exploitation designed to c i rc u mvent victim defenses. This coevolutionary arms race can continue indefinitely.” Nowhere does victimology imply that people who stand out as easy targets are to blame for becoming victims. Predators bear sole responsibility for the crimes they commit—and should be held accountable and punished accord i n g l y. Mo re ove r, m a nyattacks are random, and no amount of vigilance could deter them. Whether
victims are selected randomly or targeted because of specific chara c t e r i stics, they bear no responsibility for crimes against them. But by being awa re of which cues criminals look for, we can reduce the risk of becoming targets ourselve s.
W h at You Don’t Know Can Hurt You in a classic st u d y, re s e a rchers Betty Grayson and Morris I. Stein asked convicted criminals to view a video of pedestrians walking down a busy New York City sidewalk, unaware they were being taped. The convicts had been to prison for violent offenses such as armed ro bbery, rape, and murder. Within a few seconds, the convicts identified which pedestrians they would have been likely to target. What startled January/February 2009 Psychology Today 81
that makes it look like a phy s ically fit manly-type of guy lives with them—out in front of their F A door, most rapists or even burD B glars wouldn’t even think about trying to get into their home.” C D i st raction is another cue criminals look for. Some peoE ple think talking on a cell phone enhances their safety because the other person can alway s summon help if there ’s tro uA) A walk that lacks org a n i zed movement and flowing motion signals fear or physical vulnerability. B) Drunken peoble—but experts disagre e. ple appear more vulnerable, place themselves in dangerous situations, and give off signals predators may misinte rTalking on a phone or list e npret as sexual inte re st. C) Many think talking on a cell phone deters criminals because you can summon help, but it actually signals you’re dist ra c ted. D) Pre d ators can identify submiss i ve people through their body language, such ing to an iPod is a distraction, as dow nward gaze and slumped post u re. E) Women with pass i ve, submiss i ve personalities are most likely to be and armed robbers are casting raped—and they tend to wear body-concealing clothing, such as high necklines, long pants and sleeves, and multiabout for dist racted victims. ple layers. F) Robbers target people who flaunt material poss e ssions or display a co c ky, condescending at t i t u d e. “Not paying attention, looking the researchers was that there was a clear vulnerability makes sense given that most like a tourist—having the map out, lookconsensus among the criminals about criminals, especially murderers, are look- ing confused— absolutely makes people whom they would have picked as victims— ing for people who will be easy to control. more vulnerable,” Burke says. and their choices were not based on gen- Even rape is motivated less by sex and Being aware of your surroundings, der, ra c e, or age. Some petite, physically m o reby the desire for control and power. h oweve r, may not help much if you don’t slight women were not selected as potenSexual predators in particular look for know what to pay attention to. James tial victims, while some large men we re. people they can easily ove r p owe r. “The Giannini of Ohio State Un i versity disThe researchers realized the criminals ra p i stis going to go after somebody who’s covered something shocking: Women were assessing the ease with which they not paying attention, who looks like they’ re who are the victims of rape tend to be less could overpower the targets based on sev- not going to put up a fight, who’s in a loca- able than ave rage to interpret nonve r b a l eral nonverbal signals—posture, body lan- tion that’s going to make this more con- facial cues—which may render them guage, pace of wa l k i n g, length of st r i d e, venient,” says Tod Burke, a criminologist oblivious to the warning signs of host i l e and awa reness of env i ronment. Neither at Radford University in Virginia. intent and more likely to enter or stay criminals nor victims we re consciously awa re of these cues. They are what psyWOMEN WITH PASSIVE PERSONALITIES ARE c h o l o g i sts call “pre c i p i t a t o r s,” personal attributes that increase a person’s likeliMOST LIKELY TO BE RAPED—AND THEY TEND hood of being criminally victimized. TO WEAR BODY-CONCEALING CLOTHES. The re s e a rchers analyzed the body language of the people on the tape, and identified seve ral aspects of demeanor “ If I had the slightest inkling that a in dangerous situations. that marked potential victims as good tar- woman wasn’t someone I could easily hanThe same team also found that rapists g e t s. One of the main precipitators is a dle, then I would pass right on by. Or if I tend to be moreable than average to interwalking style that lacks “interactional syn- thought I couldn’t control the situation, pret facial cues, such as a downwa rdgaze chro ny” and “wholeness.” Perpetrators then I wouldn’t even mess with the house, or a fearful ex p ression. It’s possible this notice a person whose walk lacks org a- much less attempt a rape there,” says Brad skill makes ra p i stsespecially able to spot nized movement and flowing motion. Morrison, a convicted sex offender who passive, submissive women. One st u d y Criminals view such people as less self- raped 75 women in 11 states and who’s even showed that ra p i stsare more empaconfident—perhaps because their wa l k quoted in P redators: Who They Are and thetic towa rd women than other crimisuggests they are less athletic and fit—and How to Stop Th e m, by Gregory M. Coop- nals—although they have a distinct empaare much more likely to exploit them. er, Michael R. King, and Thomas McHoes. thy gap when it comes to their own victims. Ju st like predators in the wild, armed “ L i ke, if they had a dog, then forget it. A highly attuned rapist and a woman who’s robbers often attack the slowe st in the Even a small one makes too much noise. oblivious to hostile body language make a h e rd. People who drag their feet, shuf- If I saw a pair of construction boots, for d a n g e rous combination. fle along, or exhibit other unusual gaits example, out on the porch or on the landEven personality plays a role. Convenare targeted more often than people who i n g, I wa l ked right on by. In fact, I think tional wisdom holds that women who walk fast and fluidly. if women who live alone would put a pair dress provo c a t i vely draw attention and That criminals are attuned to cues of of old construction boots—or something put themselves at risk of sexual assault. 82 Psychology Today January/February 2009
But studies show that it is women with passive, submissive personalities who are most likely to be raped—and that they tend to wear body-concealing clothing, such as high necklines, long pants and sleeves, and multiple layers. Predatory men can a c c u rately identify submissive wo m e n j u st by their style of dress and other aspects of appearance. The hallmarks of submissive body language, such as dow nward gaze and slumped posture, may even be misinterpreted by ra p i stsas flirtation. Drinking and drug use, not surprisingly, also mark a person as a potential victim. “It’s a robber’s dream to knock a drunk down and take what they’ve got,” says former Ohio detective Stacy Dittrich. That goes double for sexual assault. Drunken people not only appear more vulnerable, they’ re also especially likely to place themselves in dangerous situations. Alcohol decreases people’s ability to evaluate the consequences of their actions and distorts their ability to predict how others perceive them. And women who are intoxicated, studies show, tend to be animated, giving off signals sexual offenders may misinterpret as sexual interest.
The Resentment Motive many armed robbers have a chip on their shoulders and view life as inherently unfair, says criminologist Richard Wright, a professor at the Un i versity of Missouri at St. Louis and co-author of Armed Robbers in Action: Stickups and Street Culture. As a result, they often see someone else’s success as a reminder of their own failure and inferiority. Worse still, they interpret outward signs of another’s prosperity as a personal affront. “When they see people flaunting their wealth or driving fancy cars, they see that as an attempt to put them down,” Wright say s. For this reason, robbers are especially apt to target people who are flaunting material possessions or even just displaying a cocky, superior attitude. Street pre dators have their own wo rd for such behavior—“flossing”—and it infuriates them. “It’s a very visible reminder of their situation,” Wright adds, “of being poor, that they’ve got nothing in their pockets.” From the perspective of the perpetrator, the robbery balances the scales, at l e a st tempora r i l y. “It’s a re st o ration of
justice,” Wright explains. “‘You were putting me down. Now guess what? I’m going to put you down. You’ve got all that. I’m going to take it away.’” Sometimes, however, indignation may be just moral flimflam robbers use to justify their own behavior. “In some cases, offenders need to manufacture motivation to commit the crime,” Topalli says. Somehow, they need to justify their actions. “It’s better to rob people who deserve it.” In the inverted universe that re s e n tment builds in the brain, many armed robbers view themselves as the real victims in the world, a world in which the rich take their wealth from the poor.
Reducing the Risk g r ays o n, c o- au t h o r of the classic study on body language and exploitability, believes people can be taught how to walk in a confident way that reduces their risk of assault. To reduce the chances of becoming a victim, you can’t look like a victim. “Walk in an alert fashion, walk with purpose, with your shoulders held back,” advises Topalli. Even better, avoid placing yourself in dangerous situations and st ay awa re of your surroundings at all times. Location is a key factor in street crime, particularly in cases of sexual assault. Criminals prefer sites that are likely to serve up few witnesses and little chance of being caught. Plan routes that avoid such locations. And while yo u ’ reat it, don’t even talk to strangers on the st reet in isolated locations. One warning sign that you may be about to be robbed or attacked is the approach of a st ranger on the st reet. The person may try to engage you in conve rsation. He may ask for the time, directions, bus fare, or try to tell you about a nice club or restaurant just around the corner. Calvin Donaldson, who’s been in prison in Louisiana for the last 28 years after robbing a couple in the French Quarter who a s ked him for dire c t i o n s, offers some advice: “Once you stop and let this guy engage you in conversation, you’re opening yourself up,” he says. “Some people you d o n ’ttalk to. You just keep going.” How do you survive unharmed if you find yourself targeted? Coopera t e. “They’re not going to hurt you unless they need to,” says New Orleans Police
HOW TO AVOID BEING A VICTIM “Subtle, nonverbal cues can sometimes make the difference in whether you’re targeted or not,” says Georgia State University psychologist Volkan Topalli. Here are some simple tips from the experts on how to make yourself less appealing to street predators.
• WHEN VISITING entertainment districts, particularly those near highcrime areas, dress down if possible. Also, be sure to park in an attended garage. Fine clothes, flashy jewelry, and expensive cars attract attention. • BE ALERT. Look at your surroundings, n o t i ce the people around you. Armed robbers like to sneak up on their victims. Make brief eye contact with those around you but don’t stare. Don’t look scared. St ay off your cell phone. • WALK WITH PURPOSE. Look like you know where you’re going and how to get there. If you have to ask for directions, ask a store clerk or a restaurant employee. Don’t stop people on the street. • DON’T LET PEOPLE STOP YOU.
If someone tries to ask you something, keep moving. Don’t follow strangers.
• IF YOU CAN’T AVOID walking alone after dark, at least stay in well-lit areas. • WHEN APPROACHING your car, carry your keys in your hand. Digging for keys at your car door is a distraction. Be sure to check the passenger seats before you get in. • DON’T FLASH MONEY even when inside a business establishment. Some robbers hang out in stores in order to spot victims carrying a lot of cash. • WHEN LEAVING YOUR HOME, tell someone your exact route and your estimated time of arrival. That way, if something happens to you, police know exactly where to look for you. Department psyc h o l o g i st James Are y. C o nv i c ted armed robber Darryl Fa l l s, who admits to committing more than 100 robberies, agrees. “The quicker you comply and give them your goods,” he say s, “the quicker they’re out of your face.” Some of Falls’ victims tried to conceal jewelry to which they had an emotional a t t a c h m e n t—wedding rings, for exa mple. “I understand the sentimental va lu e,” he say s, “But you can get that back. You can’t get your life back.” PT CHUCK HUST M Y R E is a retired federal agent. JAY DIXIT is a senior editor at PT. January/February 2009 Psychology Today 83